Moench KM, Maroun M, Kavushansky A, Wellman C. Alterations in neuronal morphology in infralimbic cortex predict resistance to fear extinction following acute stress. J Neurodev Disord. Excitatory GABA responses in embryonic and neonatal cortical slices demonstrated by gramicidin perforated-patch recordings and calcium imaging. Developmental Neurosci. An excitatory synapse hypothesis of depression. GoodTherapy | Prefrontal Cortex Autism spectrum features in Smith-Magenis syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:81749. Similar structural and behavioral defects of the PFC can be observed in kids with prenatal exposure to opioids, cocaine, amphetamines and other drugs-of-abuse [322,323,324,325,326,327,328,329,330]. Curr Opin Neurobiol. Nousen EK, Franco JG, Sullivan EL. The prefrontal cortex is the decision-making part of the brain, responsible for your child's ability to plan and think about the consequences of actions, solve problems and control impulses. 1979;162:24359. This review was supported by a NWA-ORC grant (ProMiSe NWA.1160.18.320) of the Dutch organization of scientific research to SK, and National Institutes of Health (USA) NIDA grant DA023999 to (PR). PDF Human prefrontal cortex: Evolution, development, and pathology Darcq E, Warnault V, Phamluong K, Besserer GM, Liu F, Ron D. MicroRNA-30a-5p in the prefrontal cortex controls the transition from moderate to excessive alcohol consumption. 2021;99:27183. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) relates to the portion of the brain located on the anteriormost portion of the frontal lobe, occupying portions of all three surfaces of the frontal lobe (orbital, medial and lateral surfaces). Common genetic variants contribute to risk of rare severe neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuron. Although still debated, the human frontal lobe seems to have evolved three times larger than that of our closest living relatives, the great apes. Molecular identity of human outer radial glia during cortical development. 2017;27:462434. J Comp Neurol. The semi-log plot in abscissa represents the number of days after conception. And eventually the FLE seizures can cause structural and functional damage of the prefrontal areas including altered short-term plasticity [389, 390]. Cereb Cortex. 2009;29:1254257. Development of the noradrenergic innervation of neocortex. 2002;3:72839. Grasby KL, Jahanshad N, Painter JN, Colodro-Conde L, Bralten J, Hibar DP, et al. We will here review three of the classical NDDs that are considered to be multifactorial in their onset with affected PFC development. 2018;41:11937. 2011;197:17. 2017;16:126670. 2016;113:96768. Biochemical Pharmacol. 2009;20:395402. J Comp Neurol. Kabanova A, Pabst M, Lorkowski M, Braganza O, Boehlen A, Nikbakht N, et al. The Zika virus is able to infect neuroepithelial stem cells and cortical radial glial cells and to a lesser extent postmigratory neurons causing structural disorganization in these cells eventually leading to cell death [341,342,343]. Evolution of increased glia-neuron ratios in the human frontal cortex. Front Neurosci. 2016;80:75464. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. I. 2016;6:e966. 2014;522:335162. Transl Psychiatry. The prefrontal cortex: functional neural development during early J Comp Neurol. Semaphorin 3F is a bifunctional guidance cue for dopaminergic axons and controls their fasciculation, channeling, rostral growth, and intracortical targeting. Target-specific modulation of the descending prefrontal cortex inputs to the dorsal raphe nucleus by cannabinoids. Concurrent generation of subplate and cortical plate neurons in developing trisomy 16 mouse cortex. Ablation of ErbB4 from excitatory neurons leads to reduced dendritic spine density in mouse prefrontal cortex. Impact of prenatal ischemia on behavior, cognitive abilities and neuroanatomy in adult rats with white matter damage. 5, No. 2005;27:27787. Kates WR, Antshel K, Willhite R, Bessette BA, AbdulSabur N, Higgins AM. Recently it was found that retinoic acid (RA) plays a critical role in PFC development and specifically in this thalamus-prefrontal connectivity [203]. Luciana and Nelson's study showed that in normal children, aged 4-8 years, the prefrontal working memory system emerges at around the age of 4 and improves between 5 and 7 years of age [ 94 ], and capacity of visual short-term memory increases also substantially between 5 and 11 years of age [ 95 ]. Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A, et al. Cereb Cortex. Vice versa, the multitude of pyramidal neurons in the various layers and PFC subdomains will connect to other cortical and subcortical targets by extending their axons, once they have reached their final position in the PFC (human: birth till end of first year/rodent first 2 postnatal weeks). 2002;51:77587. Although neurons of the PFC are generated before birth, the differentiation of its neurons and development of synaptic connections in humans extend to the 3rd decade of life. Haploinsufficiency of MeCP2-interacting transcriptional co-repressor SIN3A causes mild intellectual disability by affecting the development of cortical integrity. Neurosci Lett. van Dongen LCM, Wingbermuhle E, van der Veld WM, Vermeulen K, Bos-Roubos AG, Ockeloen CW, et al. Cell Rep. 2014;9:213951. Neuron. Acta Neurobiol Exp. dcc orchestrates the development of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence and is altered in psychiatric patients. Rivell A, Mattson MP. Di Giovanni G, Di Matteo V, Pierucci M, Esposito E. Serotonin-dopamine interaction: electrophysiological evidence. Gaspar P, Bloch B, Le, Moine C. D1 and D2 receptor gene expression in the rat frontal cortex: cellular localization in different classes of efferent neurons. To obtain Brain morphometry in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: an exploration of differences in cortical thickness, surface area, and their contribution to cortical volume. The origin of species-specific distinctions can be traced either to the new or phylogenetically conserved genes that act at the time of the neural stem cells exit from the mitotic cycle and generate a different outcome, depending on the evolutionary context by interacting with a postmitotic neuron. Efficient derivation of microglia-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells. Steering dopaminergic projections from the VTA via the medial forebrain bundle toward forebrain regions mostly depend on a coordinated action of the guidance molecules Dcc and Netrin-1 mediated by microRNA miR-218 control of Dcc expression in the VTA [159,160,161], while Semaphorin3F is orchestrating their fasciculation, rostral growth and targeting within the various mPFC subdomains [156]. Mesocortical dopamine neurons operate in distinct temporal domains using multimodal signaling. Cell Cycle. 1990;8:21721. Patterns of neuronal migration in the embryonic cortex. 2014;55:101724. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. PubMed Central Temporal specification and bilaterality of human neocortical topographic gene expression. Sci Rep. 2019;9:5037. 1990;85:185222. A valid question still remains: Do rodents have a prefrontal cortex? Neuroscience. Tokariev A, Stjerna S, Lano A, Metsaranta M, Palva JM, Vanhatalo S. Preterm birth changes networks of newborn cortical activity. A transient placental source of serotonin for the fetal forebrain. Pharmacol Rev. Little is known however on the short- and long-termeffects of a COVID-19 infection during pregnancy and the possible neurodevelopmental changes it can make during corticogenesis leading to NDDs [348]. The tempo and kinetics of synapse formation in the primatePFC closely resemble those described for other areas [92]. A schematic representation of the approximate position of layers IVI and the white matter (WM) is indicated on the left (green rectangle). Understanding the Teen Brain - Health Encyclopedia - University of Restoring Mecp2 levels within the PFC in micevia state-of-the-art techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 or DREADDS can restore some of the endophenotypes such as social recognition deficits or long-term retrieval of auditory conditioned fear [267, 270, 271]. Neuroscience. A prefrontal cortex-brainstem neuronal projection that controls response to behavioural challenge. Paredes MF, James D, Gil-Perotin S, Kim H, Cotter JA, Ng C, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. J Neurosci. Preuss TM. J Neurosci: Off J Soc Neurosci. 2018;136:75978. Neuroscience. Science 2009;325:6215. BMC Med. Exploring the behavioral and cognitive phenotype of KBG syndrome. Disruptions in PFC network activity often further aggravates the already compromised neurocognitive development in these children [365, 366]. Early adolescent Rai1 reactivation reverses transcriptional and social interaction deficits in a mouse model of Smith-Magenis syndrome. 2020;36:5679. sac, sacrifice. Grewen K, Burchinal M, Vachet C, Gouttard S, Gilmore JH, Lin W, et al. Rincel M, Lepinay AL, Delage P, Fioramonti J, Theodorou VS, Laye S, et al. 2015;35:1097788. Dopamine axon targeting in the nucleus accumbens in adolescence requires netrin-1. 2000;12:122740. Abnormal PFC development may lead to a variety of behavioral and cognitive problems inherent to psychiatric disorders including NDDs. LaMantia AS, Rakic P. Axon overproduction and elimination in the corpus callosum of the developing rhesus monkey. Br J Dev Psychol. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2009;11:3938. The radial glial processes that extend to the pial surface serve as a scaffold for the migrating neurons, which will settle themselves in an inside-out manner with the earlier-born neurons in the deeper layers and later born neurons in the more superficial ones [56, 64, 65]. 2017;37:730517. Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Higher Functions of the Brain. 2019; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2019.12.31.891036v1. Cholfin JA, Rubenstein JL. Prog Brain Res. Effects of ethanol exposure in utero on Cajal-Retzius cells in the developing cortex. If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Nat Neurosci. It is also called the 'frontal granular cortex' and 'frontal association cortex'. It is implicated in a variety of complex behaviors, including planning, and greatly contributes to. 2009;213:3656. Developmental changes in human dopamine neurotransmission: cortical receptors and terminators. 2019;29:81426. New insights into the development of the human cerebral cortex. 2009;10:8429. Premature aging phenotype in mice lacking high-affinity nicotinic receptors: region-specific changes in layer V pyramidal cell morphology. 2010;464:55461. Neuron. eNeuro. In: Plum F, editor. Projections and interconnections of genetically defined serotonin neurons in mice. Nature. Zika virus associated with microcephaly. How the Brain Develops | Psychology Today Wilfert AB, Sulovari A, Turner TN, Coe BP, Eichler EE. Loss of PP2A disrupts the retention of radial glial progenitors in the telencephalic niche to impair the generation for late-born neurons during cortical developmentdagger. Skorput AG, Yeh HH. Engelhard B, Finkelstein J, Cox J, Fleming W, Jang HJ, Ornelas S, et al. Likewise, various genetic approaches in combination with functional assays andimmunohistochemical and imaging methods reveal roles of neurotransmittersystems during maturation of the PFC. Hypoxia-induced developmental delays of inhibitory interneurons are reversed by environmental enrichment in the postnatal mouse forebrain. Morin EL, Howell BR, Feczko E, Earl E, Pincus M, Reding K, et al. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. Manning KE, Tait R, Suckling J, Holland AJ. J Comp Neurol. 2013;33:1337587. 1984;2:491503. Chenn A, Walsh CA. Janiesch PC, Kruger HS, Poschel B, Hanganu-Opatz IL. Neurotox Res. Nature. Verheij C, Bakker CE, de Graaff E, Keulemans J, Willemsen R, Verkerk AJ, et al. 2015;35:58609. External neurotransmitter sources, such as the placenta, can play a role in this early shaping of cortical areas [114, 118, 241, 242]. 2004;42:94759. PubMed Central 2013;80:63347. 2019;570:50913. Regional distribution of nicotinic receptors during prenatal development of human brain and spinal cord. Prog Brain Res. Sex-specific neurodevelopmental programming by placental insulin receptors on stress reactivity and sensorimotor gating. Cell. Functional and evolutionary insights into human brain development through global transcriptome analysis. J Psychiatr Res. Dev Neurosci. Molnar Z, Kaas JH, de Carlos JA, Hevner RF, Lein E, Nemec P. Evolution and development of the mammalian cerebral cortex. Science 2017;358:47882. Ontogeny of the serotonergic projection to rat neocortex: transient expression of a dense innervation to primary sensory areas. Comparative safety of anti-epileptic drugs during pregnancy: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of congenital malformations and prenatal outcomes. In humans, the PFC can be considered to have evolved disproportionally large and it is thought to be the last region of the brain to gain full maturity [12, 13]. Chandler DJ, Gao WJ, Waterhouse BD. Bacon SJ, Headlam AJ, Gabbott PL, Smith AD. According to the RUH, tangential (horizontal) positions of cortical neurons are determined by the positions of their precursor cells, now called stem cells in the VZ, while their radial (vertical) position in the overlying cortex is determined by the time of their origin (Fig. Early postnatal development of pyramidal neurons across layers of the mouse medial prefrontal cortex. 2003;4:100212. Fetal Brain Development: When Your Baby Develops a Brain - What to Expect Around the second postnatal week in rodents (~first postnatal week in human), the depolarizing effect slowly transitions into an inhibitory net effect depending on place and time [189, 190]. JAMA. It has become widely accepted that serotonin exerts a significant trophic and modulatory function in neurodevelopmental processes such as proliferation, migration and differentiation in cortical areas, including the PFC [119, 123, 125,126,127,128,129]. 373417. 2011;31:15397406. Defects in embryonic neurogenesis and initial synapse formation in the forebrain of the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome. 2017;358:131823. 2016;374:9518. The brain on stress: vulnerability and plasticity of the prefrontal cortex over the life course. It is estimated that the prefrontal cortex continues to develop till the age of 25. 2018;21:92031. 2008;9:11022. Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. A Three-dimensional reconstruction of postmitotic neurons migrating along radial glial fibers, based on electron micrographs of semi-serial sections of the monkey fetal cerebral cortex with permission from Rakic [56]. Brain Struct Funct. It was furthermore discovered that major neurotransmitter receptors are also initially overproduced in all eight primate prefrontal regions examined [104, 105]. Brief uncontrollable stress causes dendritic retraction in infralimbic cortex and resistance to fear extinction in mice. The prefrontal cortex, involved in planning and other executive functions, is still developing into early adulthood (with changes such as synaptic pruning), later than a number of other brain areas. The glutamatergic component of the mesocortical pathway emanating from different subregions of the ventral midbrain. Prog brain Res. Front Neurosci. Basal dendritic morphology of cortical pyramidal neurons in Williams syndrome: prefrontal cortex and beyond. The interplay between the prefrontal cortex and socioemotional system of the brain is relevant for adolescent development, . J Comp Neurol. Winzer-Serhan UH, Leslie FM. During evolution, the cerebral cortex advances by increasing in surface and the introduction of new cytoarchitectonic areas among which the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is considered to be the substrate of highest cognitive functions. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is composed of BA12, BA25, and anterior . Mi D, Li Z, Lim L, Li M, Moissidis M, Yang Y, et al. Transl Psychiatry. The genetic causes underlying NDDs are diverse ranging from single gene mutations, copy number variations to wholechromosome aberrations [263]. NeuroImage Clin. 2013;7:260. Diversity of cortical interneurons in primates: the role of the dorsal proliferative niche. Perinatal hypoxia can furthermore change the expression of cytokine and ceramide metabolism genes in the PFC and hampers cognitive functioning in later life [359, 360]. Prefrontal Cortex | What?, Development, Structure & Function It is clear that in FX the many behavioral and cognitive deficits can be attributed, at least in part, to prefrontal dysfunction. J Anat. The prefrontal cortex comprises approximately one-third of the entire cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. After neurons assume their final position, they begin to differentiate furtherand form synaptic connections. Anat Rec. The most ventral subdomain of the mPFC is the infralimbic cortex (IL) and is involved in coping with chronic stress eventually leading to structural changes and prefrontal dysfunction [5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. 1999;2:85961. Adults think with the prefrontal cortex, the brain's rational part. 2021;31:180726. Serotonin and serotonin-like substances as regulators of early embryogenesis and morphogenesis. Petanjek Z, Judas M, Kostovic I, Uylings HB. . 2010;154C:45662. 2014;81:32132. Kable JA, Coles CD, Mattson SN. Rakic P, Stensas LJ, Sayre E, Sidman RL. We now know from recent studies that it is the birth and migration of neurons derived from oRGCs that play a role in the development of the primary sulci (superior frontal, inferior frontal and precentral) in week 2526 of gestation [23, 76]. Neuron. Cerebral Cortex. Tessier CR, Broadie K. Activity-dependent modulation of neural circuit synaptic connectivity. A novel cytoarchitectonic area induced experimentally within the primate visual cortex. LaMantia AS, Rakic P. Axon overproduction and elimination in the anterior commissure of the developing rhesus monkey. Fuster, in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2009 The prefrontal cortex is one of the last cortical regions to undergo full phylogenetic and ontogenetic development. Rotaru DC, van Woerden GM, Wallaard I, Elgersma Y. Radley JJ, Rocher AB, Miller M, Janssen WG, Liston C, Hof PR, et al. Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs for neurological development in children exposed during pregnancy and breast feeding: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Rice D, Barone S Jr. Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animal models. Loss of catecholaminergic innervation underlies the most important ADHD symptoms [381]. II. Lammel S, Hetzel A, Hackel O, Jones I, Liss B, Roeper J. Synaptic dysfunction in depression: potential therapeutic targets. J Comp Neurol. 2003;13:11522. Flensborg-Madsen T, Mortensen EL. Trisomy of chromosome 21 or Down syndrome can be considered a NDD with significant developmental deficits. Popoli M, Yan Z, McEwen BS, Sanacora G. The stressed synapse: the impact of stress and glucocorticoids on glutamate transmission. 1995;7:105063. 2009;62:494509. Anatomical and functional abnormalities on MRI in kabuki syndrome. 2015;25:213848. 1, pp. Niemi MEK, Martin HC, Rice DL, Gallone G, Gordon S, Kelemen M, et al. 1998;57:10137. Reversal of social recognition deficit in adult mice with MECP2 duplication via normalization of MeCP2 in the medial prefrontal cortex. EClinicalMedicine. During mammalian evolution, the cerebral cortex not only increased in neuronal numbers and surface area but also acquired new cell types and cytoarchitectonic areas. 2009;19:247984. The part of the brain behind the forehead, called the prefrontal cortex, is one of the last parts to mature. 2016;530:98102. Yamasaki M, Takeuchi T. Locus coeruleus and dopamine-dependent memory consolidation. The Prefrontal Cortex: One of the Most Interesting Parts of the Brain 2007;27:541421. 2005;210:4117. Nature. A predictive structural model of the primate connectome. Telley L, Agirman G, Prados J, Amberg N, Fievre S, Oberst P, et al. Creutzfeldt OD. 2019;9:84. CAS It appears to be a heterogeneous set of neurons innervating all aspects of the PFC subdomains [133,134,135]. The Object Space Task reveals increased expression of cumulative memory in a mouse model of Kleefstra syndrome. 2019;9:304. volume47,pages 4157 (2022)Cite this article. Brain Res. J Intellect Disabil Res. Pollak Dorocic I, Furth D, Xuan Y, Johansson Y, Pozzi L, Silberberg G, et al. During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increases, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. The PFC furthermore sends out glutamatergic afferents to the VTA as well as to the nucleus accumbens modulating dopaminergic signaling [204,205,206]. Developmental outcomes of early adverse care on amygdala functional connectivity in nonhuman primates. Egger JI, Zwanenburg RJ, van Ravenswaaij-Arts CM, Kleefstra T, Verhoeven WM. J Comp Neurol. Still inside the womb, the generation of neural tissue (human, third gestational week) begins with the induction of ectoderm into neuroectoderm after which the neural tube will form through a process called neurulation [23]. Shiba N, Daza RA, Shaffer LG, Barkovich AJ, Dobyns WB, Hevner RF. J Neurosci. Similarly, we can find lead and other pollutants to be damaging to the developing brain and PFC [331,332,333,334]. Although similar DNA labeling is not possible to perform in humans, examination of histological and Golgi silver impregnation methods of the embryonic and fetal human cerebrum indicate the existence of similar timing and sequence of these developmental events [37, 57, 58]. Ben-Ari Y. Excitatory actions of gaba during development: the nature of the nurture. 2008;99:152334. von Bartheld CS, Bahney J, Herculano-Houzel S. The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: a review of 150 years of cell counting. When neurites to and from the PFC reach their final target position, an immature synapse is generated under the influence of, among others, cell adhesion molecules and reelin [88, 89]. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an example heterogeneous NDD characterized by impaired communication and social interaction accompanied with repetitive behavior and stereotyped interests. J Chem Neuroanat. Cell Rep. 2013;5:73847. Environ Health Perspect. Nature. Iafrati J, Orejarena MJ, Lassalle O, Bouamrane L, Gonzalez-Campo C, Chavis P. Reelin, an extracellular matrix protein linked to early onset psychiatric diseases, drives postnatal development of the prefrontal cortex via GluN2B-NMDARs and the mTOR pathway. Do rats have prefrontal cortex? Development of cholinergic innervation in the hippocampal formation of the rat. Shibata M, Pattabiraman K, Lorente-Galdos B, Andrijevic D, Xing X, Sousa AMM, et al. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;15:4957. Prefrontal cortex: structure and function | Kenhub Paredes MF, James D, Gil-Perotin S, Kim H, Cotter JA, Ng C, et al. 1).Phylogenetically and ontogenetically, it is one of the last regions of the cortex (neocortex) to develop (Brodmann 1909).The human prefrontal cortex does not reach full structural maturation of cells and connections until young . Sidman RLRP. J Comp Neurol. Cognitive abilities are shaped by experience over time and seem to be in synchrony with PFC structural changes such as synaptogenesis and pruning [250]. Cereb Cortex. Samuelsen GB, Larsen KB, Bogdanovic N, Laursen H, Graem N, Larsen JF, et al. 1990;85:25782. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. Of note here is that some ofthese dopaminergic neurons projecting to the various PFC subdomains are capable of co-releasing glutamate as well and have an exclusive excitatory effect on the GABAergic interneurons in the various layers of the PFC [170,171,172,173]. It was the last brain region to develop (from an evolutionary point of view) and display phylogenetic progress and full ontogeny. Eur J Neurosci. Mid-pregnancy may be defining period for human brain New research is helping scientists learn about areas that are crucial to emotional development, and how our surroundings fit into the picture. Zika virus and microcephaly. [16, 17]. Science. [12]. Hansen DV, Lui JH, Parker PR, Kriegstein AR. From our earliest days, the brain rapidly develops thinking, mobility, and communication skills. Both authors (SMK, PR) contributed equally to the writing of this manuscript. These children often have various conditions that are collectively known as Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), which includes FAS and a condition known as Alcohol-related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND). The cerebral network of COVID-19-related encephalopathy: a longitudinal voxel-based 18F-FDG-PET study. Among the most recent additions are several association areas, particularly the PFC, which hasexpanded enormously in primates culminating in humans [14]. Eur J Neurosci. 2017;5:30. Nat Rev Neurosci. Trends Neurosci. Huang WH, Wang DC, Allen WE, Klope M, Hu H, Shamloo M, et al. 1982;255:1404. J Comp Neurol. Mesulam MM, Hersh LB, Mash DC, Geula C. Differential cholinergic innervation within functional subdivisions of the human cerebral cortex: a choline acetyltransferase study. 2001;305:17786. Yet, as the PFC takes the longest to fully mature, we can argue that it is most vulnerable to any risk factor when presented early enough. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Key developing PFC circuitry is shaped by acetylcholine, and PFC pyramidal neurons depend on its proper signaling in terms of dendritic branching, spine formation and synaptogenesis [224,225,226]. The age in postnatal years is shown on a logarithmic scale. Anat Embryol. Trowbridge S, Narboux-Neme N, Gaspar P. Genetic models of serotonin (5-HT) depletion: what do they tell us about the developmental role of 5-HT? Prenatal ketamine exposure causes abnormal development of prefrontal cortex in rat. Disruption, or even a slight slowing of the rate of neuronal production, migration and synaptogenesis by genetic or environmental factors, can induce gross as well as subtle changes that eventually can lead to cognitive impairment.
Owens Student Services,
Adventist Health Fort Bragg, Ca,
Qbcore Evidence Script,
Vidanta Beach Club Riviera Maya,
Articles W
