In this introduction, we first introduce the theme of family dynamics and children's outcomes by giving an overview of the findings of parental separation and child outcomes (Sect. Kiernan and Mensah (2009) found a role for both maternal depression and economic resources when explaining the lower emotional well-being of children from separated families, whereas Turunen (2013) found that parental involvement explained part of the lower emotional well-being of children with separated parents, but economic resources did not. A family's unique dynamics can have an immense impact on every individual's overall health and well-being, as well as the conscious and unconscious choices they make. An example is the increasing popularity of joint residential custody, which questions earlier divisions into single-parent and two-parent families. Similar to SFE models, longitudinal studies generally report weaker effects on child outcomes of parental separation and other family transitions than found in cross-sectional analyses. For example, having a close relationship with the nonresident parent who engages in authoritative parenting has been found to foster childrens well-being and academic success (Amato and Gilbreth 1999). As reviewed in this article, the findings often point to confusingly different directions. In the subsequent sections, we will refine this basic picture by concentrating on other family forms, causality, and heterogeneity in effects. On the other hand, parental separation can improve the relationships between siblings due to mutual support (Geser 2001), but does not seem to trigger more support from friends and other kin (Kalmijn and Dronkers 2015). Controlling for pre-separation conflict generally leads to a substantial reduction in the effect of parental separation (e.g., Hanson 1999; Ghler and Garriga 2013), suggesting that exposure to the parental conflict rather than the parental separation event is largely responsible for the poorer performance of the children of divorce. Over the years researchers have found the necessity to develop theories of behavior that are specific to family settings. Mariani, E., zcan, B., & Goisis, A. Consequences of parental divorce for child development. Yet as discussed above, conceptual thought of what effects can be estimated with different methods and what effects are of most theoretical interest has not necessarily kept up with the methodological advances (for exceptions: Manski et al. More precisely, do these associations differ according to the type of family structure studied? The effect of divorce on parentchild contacts: Evidence on two declining effect hypotheses. Bernardi and Boertien (2017, this Special Issue) address this inconsistency. Other separations end relatively well-functioning families and can come as a surprise to the children, whereas in some cases the families had high conflict levels for a long time. Maternal education and the unequal significance of family structure for childrens early achievement. When their opinions are listened to, it builds in their confidence in themselves. 2011). Racial and ethnic differences in experiencing parents? Ghler M, Garriga A. Parental divorce and childrens adjustment. 8600 Rockville Pike Half or step siblings? Even though growth-curve models enable analysis of how effects develop, they are not immune to confounding from unmeasured variables that can affect both the initial level of well-being and its development over time (McLanahan et al. Children who grow up in households with unhealthy family dynamics (abuse, neglect, overly strict parenting, overly loose parenting, poor communication, insecure attachment style, etc.) Bernardi F, Radl J. Parental separation, social origin, and educational attainment: The long-term consequences of divorce for children. Family ties, parenting style, and modeling could go a long way to determine a child's behavior and inclinations as a family consists of individuals closely related by blood, marriage, or adoption. Once we become aware of how our family influences us, we can have more control over whether those dynamics shape our perceptions and actions. Amato 2000). A comparison of seventeen countries. Depending on the country, separated parents may need to adjust their labor supply to meet their new time and economic demands (Kalmijn et al. 2004; Lee and McLanahan 2015) or more complex research designs (e.g., Sanz-de-Galdeano and Vuri 2007) can be used to alleviate these problems. In the 2000s, the share of children who experienced their parents separation before age 15 ranged from 10 to 12% in countries such as Bulgaria, Georgia, Italy, and Spain to 3542% in France, Estonia, Lithuania, and Russia (Andersson et al., forthcoming). Sun Y, Li Y. Accessibility Swiss L, Le Bourdais C. Fatherchild contact after separation: The influence of living arrangements. Many studies, including the ones by Erman and Hrknen and Bernardi and Boertien in this Special Issue, have found that parental separation effects on educational outcomes are weaker in socioeconomic and ethnic groups where it is more frequent, but Amato and Anthony (2014) reported that the effects are more negative for children who had the highest risk of experiencing parental separation. In an early British IFE study, Cherlin et al. Family trajectories and wellbeing of children born to lone mothers in the United Kingdom. 2 There were 25 million children . Hanson TL. With these methods, one compares the outcomes of children who experienced parental separation to the outcomes of children from intact families, adjusting for observed confounding variables. SFE models are most informative of the effects of parental separation if it isreasonable to assume that the family environment (including levels of parental conflict) would remain stable in the absence of the parental separation (Sigle-Rushton et al. Furstenberg and Kiernan 2001). In: Ldham JT, Melli MS, editors. Family dynamics impact nearly all areas of life, making understanding them incredibly important to individuals who are working towards living an emotional healthy life. 2013), possibly because of data access issues. Dronkers and Hrknen (2008) found that the intergenerational transmission of divorce was weaker in countries where parental divorce was more common. 1995; Dronkers 1999; Hanson 1999; Demo and Fine 2010). Some studies have found no effects, but the prevailing conclusion is that parental separation can have weak to moderate negative effects (Amato 2000, 2010; McLanahan et al. In the next paragraphs, we provide an overview of the associations of parental separation with some of the most commonly studied child outcomes: psychological well-being and behavioral problems, education, social relationships, and own family lives. Marital disruption during late adolescence. Others have found a weak to moderate negative effect on various outcomes even in an SFE design (e.g., Ermisch et al. Family dynamics can be impacted by those involved in the family system. The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Mariani et al. Developmental theories view adolescence as a period of growth in which identity formation is addressed . Manski CF, Sandefur GD, McLanahan S, Powers D. Alternative estimates of the effect of family structure during adolescence on high school graduation. When evaluating the scientific research on the effects of divorce on children and parents, it is important to consider all of the factors affecting the outcome, including family dynamics, children's temperaments and ages at the time of divorce, and family socioeconomic status, as well as any behavioral or academic concerns present prior to divorce. How to Make Friends in Your 30s: A Real-World Guide. We repeatedly mentioned how the methods are most robust if it is reasonable to assume that the family environment, and the childrens well-being, remained stable before the separation and would have remained stable in its absence. They found that the effects were the strongest for children with the highest risk of experiencing parental divorce, a result seemingly at odds with theabove-mentioned findings of weaker effects in groups with higher separation rates. Two articles provide evidence on how several less often studied family forms relate to child outcomes in the European context. Children have to feel comfortable enough to express themselves. A family unit can take lots of different forms these days, but all of them involve special bonds. 2007; Uunk 2004). 7 If changes in economic resources partly explain links between family change and child development, and those changes matter more to those with fewer resources, then family change could affect children in low-income families to a greater degree. During this time their self concept is forming, and can be heavily influenced by their parents, according to Heather Weiss, Founder and Director of the Harvard Family Research Project. 2015). Parental separation has been the family transition that has attracted most attention among social scientists, and many of our examples later in the article consider this research too. (2017) present the first European analysis of the effects of family trajectories on children born to lone mothers. In general, the family structure effects are weaker in groups in which parental separation and single motherhood are more common, which has been explained by less stigma, better ways of handling father absence, a broadly disadvantaged position with less to lose, or differential selection by unobserved factors, as argued by Erman and Hrknen in this Special Issue. Next, we discuss how this heterogeneity in effects is related to pre-separation parental conflict and childrens and parents socio-demographic attributes. Parental separation and school performance among children of immigrant mothers in Sweden. Family dynamics can also shift from healthy to unhealthy, and vice versa. The sibling who did not experience the parental separation is always the older one, and her grades are used to infer about the counterfactual grades of her younger sibling, had she not experienced the parental separation. McLanahan S, Bumpass L. Intergenerational consequences of family disruption. 2013). Sigle-Rushton W, Hobcraft J, Kiernan K. Parental divorce and subsequent disadvantage: A cross-cohort comparison. A positive home requires parents to set and uphold. Augustine JM. Family dynamics are pervasive patterns of interaction--both healthy and unhealthy--that trickle down from generation to generation. Such data can be analyzed using many methods, but unlike with SFE, these methods can only be used to analyze outcomes that are measured more than once. Evaluating the Literature. Amato PR. Children of divorce are also increasingly likely to retain close contact with both of their parents (e.g., Amato and Gilbreth 1999; Ghler and Palmtag 2015) and families and societies may have in general become better in handling the consequences of family change. Subsequently, we review studies that have aimed to deal with endogeneity and discuss whether issues of causality challenge the general picture of family transitions lowering child well-being. Family dynamics become the basis for how the child views themselves, their relationships, and the world around them. Distress among young adults from divorced families. 2012; Reneflot 2009; but see also N Bhrolchin et al. This suggests that policy changes toward joint custody as a default solution may produce unwanted consequences. Because family members rely on each other for emotional, physical, and economic support, they are one of the primary sources of relationship security or stress. 1 Yet parents and other family members still play a critical role in the promotion of adolescents' well-being, by providing a positive support system within which youth can explore their changing identity. lation between family change and child outcomes. In line with these contrasting predictions, empirical results are mixed, with some findings pointing to stronger negative effects in families with high (Augustine 2014; Grtz 2015; Mandemakers and Kalmijn 2014) or low socioeconomic status (Bernardi and Boertien 2016a; Bernardi and Radl 2014; Biblarz and Raftery 1999; Martin 2012; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994). N Bhrolchin M. Divorce effects and causality in the social sciences. 2013). The article in this Special Issue by Bernardi and Boertien (2017) provides also an empirical contribution to this field. Lansford JE. Second, instead of asking what the effect of the parental separation (compared to them staying together) is, one can ask what the effect is of the parents separating at a specific point in time (the effect of postponing separation) (cf. 2004; Sandefur and Wells 1999; Sigle-Rushton et al. (2017). Without additional measures, SFE models thus generally rely on the assumption of the stability of the family environment (cf. Many studies have reported that children in joint residential custody fare better than children who reside with only one of the parents (usually the mother) on outcomes such as health and psychological well-being, and contact and relationships with their parents and grandparents (Bjarnason and Arnarsson 2011; Turunen 2016; Westphal et al. It can be a little challenging to navigate making friends in your 30s, but we're here to help with some simple tips. In the late 1980s/early 1990s, the corresponding figures ranged from 7 to 30% (Italy and Sweden, respectively, Andersson and Philipov 2002). Introduction. 8. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Extending the focus of research beyond parental separation is necessary to form a more comprehensive view of the effects of the changing family landscape on childrens lives (King 2009; Sweeney 2010).1. Like most similar reviews, we discuss which (un)measured confounders can be controlled for by the different methods and provide examples of studies that have used them. They need to check at all times what the kids are doing and do not have honest communication or rules about it. We have so far focused on parental separation and its relation to child outcomes. What is unconsciously and consciously absorbed and experienced during childhood greatly impacts their choices as adults, including who they are attracted to, what type of goals they have, and how they handle conflict. Published August 13, 2020 Thomas Barwick / DigitalVision via Getty Images Family dynamics are often complex and may feel difficult to understand. The UNCRC gives all children the right to a family. This chapter explores dysfunctional family dynamics as the certain condition. 2012). Everyone has a voice and is listened to In a healthy family, everyone's opinion is heard and no one is shut up. 2 ). Parental separation has become increasingly associated with low levels of maternal education (Hrknen and Dronkers 2006). 2017; Radl et al. The two other articles in this Special Issue (Bernardi and Boertien 2017; Erman and Hrknen 2017) contribute to the research on heterogeneous consequences of parental separation by clarifying some open questions regarding variation in these consequences by socioeconomic and immigrant background. Individual fixed effects (IFE) models are based on comparing individuals before and after the parental separation and in effect, use individuals as their own control groups to control for time-constant unobserved factors. 2010). A comparative study of 24 countries. 2014). Martin MA. Shared physical custody and childrens experience of stress. However, an increase in parental conflict is often an inherent part of the parental separation process, and controlling for levels of parental conflict close to the parental separation would not be warranted if one is interested in understanding how exposure to the parental separation process, in addition to the separation event, affects childrens outcomes (cf. 2000; Ongaro and Mazzuco 2009), often because of conflict with parents and their potential new partners (Wolfinger 2005). Researchers should pay more attention to these differences in the conceptualization of effects, which essentially boils down to the consideration of the underlying theoretical model of parental separation. We set the stage for future research in four directions. The second open question concerns the causal status of the estimated effects (Sect. Erman, J., & Hrknen, J. A systematic search of the Chinese and English databases including Pubmed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, CNKI, Weipu, Wanfang, and CBMdisc databases from January 1, 1990, to July 31, 2021, was performed. 2017), one by comparing parental separation effects by socioeconomic background (Bernardi and Boertien 2017), and one by immigrant background (Erman and Hrknen 2017). Above, we discussed how parental separations are often theorized as processes that can follow quite different trajectories for different families (Amato 2000; Demo and Fine 2010; Hrknen 2014). However, having a stepparent can also have positive effects as (s)he can provide financial resources or help in monitoring the children (Thomson et al. From this perspective, children born to lone mothers who do not experience any family transitions during their childhood (such as the entrance of a stepparent) should do better than children who were born in a two-parent family but experienced a family transition (such as parental separation). Cherlin et al. Every child is unique in interacting with the world around them, and what they invoke and receive from others and the environment also. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society). official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Two articles in this Special Issue fulfill part of this research agenda by providing evidence on how several less often studied family forms relate to child outcomes in the European context (Mariani et al. McLanahan S, Tach L, Schneider D. The causal effects of father absence. Bernardi F, Boertien D. Understanding heterogeneity in the effects of parental separation on educational attainment in Britain: Do children from lower educational backgrounds have less to lose? King V. Stepfamily formation: Implications for adolescent ties to mothers, nonresident fathers and stepfathers. Amato PR. The dynamics in our families aren't limited to current, living generations. The implications of research findings on children in stepfamilies. The influence of parental separation and divorce on childrens support networks in four European countries. This fits the intuition of weaker penalties when certain family behaviors are more common. Early examples include studies in Britain, which found that although children of divorce had lower psychological well-being already pre-divorce, parental divorce had negative long-term effects (Cherlin et al.
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